Evolution of a Native American Society: A Journey Through Ancient History

As a Native American culture, the Chickasaw people broadly trace their ancestry back to the migratory peoples of the Paleo-Indian period, which spanned from roughly 10,000 BC - 8500 BC. Legend has it that the Chickasaws migrated for generations from “the place in the West” to settle in what is now the Southeast. The climate was drier and colder than today in the centuries after humans first migrated to the Americas and glaciers covered the northern lands. Paleo-Indian era people roamed the country in small extended family bands and hunted herds of mammoth, mastodon, giant bison, horse, ground sloth and other Pleistocene megafauna. The people of this era used Clovis point spears to hunt, which have been discovered all over North America, as well as in what is now Mississippi. Clovis points were often made of exotic high-quality flint, or chert, and sometimes traced to modern day northern Alabama and middle Tennessee, the Chickasaw’s historic homeland. By the Archaic Era, 8000 BC -1000 BC, glaciers melted as temperatures rose and fluctuated. As the climate changed, some of the large animals that the ancient Americans of this era depended on disappeared. Eventually temperatures became more stable, which allowed Native peoples to settle into their environments. The Mississippi River also made its transition from a glacial outwash stream of converging and diverging waterways to a broad, meandering river and rich floodplain. For the ancestors of the Chickasaws, rivers would become highways for them to trade goods aboard dugout canoes. 


Plant foods and smaller animals, such as whitetail deer, became the major source of sustenance as people adapted. With the invention of ground stone tools, the ancient people of North America began to process nuts or seeds such as hickory nuts, acorns, sunflower and chenopodium. Ground and polished stone axes were also developed for deadening trees and working wood. Sharp points were chipped from high-quality chert and then affixed to throwing spears, which were launched with the aid of the atlatl or spear-throwing stick. The end of this long cultural stage was marked by growing populations and the establishment of territories, with mobile bands of people congregating seasonally along rivers at shellfish sites. The ancient Native American people began to establish semi-permanent clan villages during the Woodland Era (1000 BC - 900 CE) and relied to a larger extent on nuts and seeds boiled in cordmarked clay pottery vessels. Rich wetland plant, animal, fish, and shellfish sustained the ancestors of today’s southeastern and Mississippi Valley tribes. Hunting and gathering also continued with increasingly larger populations along the river valleys.  During the Middle Woodland period, long-distance trade peaked with the movement of exotic chert blades, native copper, galena, quartz crystal, marine shell, decorated pottery and other valued items. Ceramic technology and the construction of earthen mounds for communal ceremonies and funerary rites also became a universal trait of Woodland societies. 

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Native History: 71-Day Wounded Knee Occupation Ends

This Date in Native History: On May 8, 1973, members of the American Indian Movement surrendered to federal authorities on South Dakota’s Pine Ridge Reservation, ending their legendary 71-day occupation of Wounded Knee.

Set in the same impoverished village as the 1890 massacre, the siege began February 27 and is hailed as one of AIM’s greatest successes. About 200 Sioux Indians participated in the occupation, which attracted supporters from dozens of other tribes and called global attention to generations of mistreatment from federal and local agencies.

“People were beaten down and afraid to speak out,” Clyde Bellecourt, one of AIM’s founders, said in the 2013 bookWe Are Still Here: A Photographic History of the American Indian Movement.“We had to create an organization to represent the people.”

Bellecourt and other activists like Russell Means and Dennis Banks organized AIM in the summer of 1968 as Natives across the country battled abuse in boarding schools or left reservations to chase the government’s promises of education and jobs in urban areas. As Natives arrived in the cities, however, they faced widespread racism, especially among white police forces.

AIM leader Russell Means gives peace pipe to U.S. assistant attorney general Kent Frizzell, right as AIM Ramon Roubideaux, seated, and Wallace Black Elk watch prior to settlement of Wounded Knee situation, Thursday, April 6, 1973. (AP Photo)

In Minneapolis, where Natives were routinely beaten, the top priority was to halt police brutality. AIM was formed in a crowded room on Minneapolis’s north side as a militant political and civil rights organization.

Labeled one of the 50 worst terrorist groups in the country, AIM staged occupations of 74 federal facilities, including Mount Rushmore, the Bureau of Indian Affairs building in Washington, D.C., and the replica of the Mayflower in Plymouth, Massachusetts.

The occupation of Wounded Knee began after Oglala Sioux elders complained about being ignored by a corrupt tribal government. Unable to impeach Chairman Dick Wilson, who had a private police force on his side, tribal members asked AIM for help.

AIM members seized control of Wounded Knee and took some of Wilson’s allies hostage. Wilson anticipated the occupation and called in FBI agents and U.S. Marshals, who set up a perimeter about a mile outside of the AIM defense line.

A U.S. flag flies upside down March 3, 1973 outside a church occupied by members of the American Indian Movement (AIM), background, on the site of the 1890 massacre at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. AIM's occupation of Wounded Knee triggered a violent standoff with federal authorities.

Kevin McKiernan, who worked as a freelance journalist for National Public Radio out of St. Paul, Minnesota, embedded with AIM for the last seven or eight weeks of the occupation. Both sides were heavily armed and Marshals prohibited people from delivering food or medicine to protesters.

Much of the occupation was tedious, McKiernan said.

“People were killed, a baby was born, a traditional wedding took place, presided by a medicine man,” he said. “But a lot of Wounded Knee was boring because it was waiting and waiting.”

Firefights broke out and two Sioux men were shot to death. A federal agent was paralyzed after being shot. But protesters agreed ahead of time that death was a price they were willing to pay, Russell Means wrote in his 1995 autobiography,Where White Men Fear to Tread.

“Things could not continue as they were,” he wrote. “If we didn’t stand up now for our treaty, we would never be able to do so. Our people were ready to die, if necessary, to end the abuse.”

McKiernan, the only journalist embedded with AIM, hiked into Wounded Knee from the nearby Rosebud Sioux Reservation. Although he went in as a journalist, he quickly formed connections with protestors.

“Wounded Knee turned out to be a line in the sand,” he said. “It was the first time I had ever seen people say ‘No’ and actually mean it. People were drawn there like they would be to a light.”

Not all Natives agreed with the occupation. Many, especially elders, thought working with the federal and tribal governments was a more favorable way to get answers to longstanding problems.

“A lot of people thought it wasn’t the Indian way, that working through the system was more respectful,” McKiernan said. “By the end of the occupation, most people realized they had accomplished little working through the system. This became a beacon for change. Wounded Knee gave the people I knew pride and hope and a different view of themselves. It was a vehicle for change like none other in the 20th century.”

As the occupation stretched on and supplies grew thin, AIM members agreed to surrender to federal authorities in three predetermined groups. In return, the White House promised to investigate their complaints.

The village woke with the sun on the morning of May 8, McKiernan said. The Sioux national anthem played as 125 defenders surrendered.

About 1,200 people eventually were arrested, resulting in 275 cases in federal, state and tribal courts. Among those tried were Means, Bellecourt and Banks, who each faced 11 criminal charges. The men were acquitted because of evidence that the FBI had manipulated key witnesses.

AIM leader Russell Means leaves U.S. District Court in St. Paul, August 16, 1974 after resting their defense in the Wounded Knee trial. Means and Dennis Banks, co-defendants, are on trial for larceny, conspiracy and three counts of assaulting federal officers during the occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973. (AP Photo)

McKiernan was arrested on charges that he reported news from a blackout zone and interfered with the federal government in the lawful performance of their duties. Those charges were dismissed.

Forty years after the occupation ended—and more than a century after the massacre—Wounded Knee still represents a troubled history and people who would do anything to incite change, McKiernan said.

“The purpose of the 1890 massacre was national, an object lesson delivered on a large scale,” he said. “Then there were dead years when Indian people won the race to the bottom in every possible sociological statistic. That changed with the occupation of Wounded Knee.”

Wounded Knee was not just the site of the 1973 occupation, but also the site of the mass grave where hundreds were buried after the massacre of December 28, 1890. (Christina Rose)

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Pow Wow Etiquette: 10 Rules to Follow in and Out of the Arena

Whether you’re a novice or veteran attending a pow wow, certain behaviors are expected while you’re on the grounds or in the arena. Although customs may vary from tribe to

tribe—and even from year to year—some basic rules remain the same.

Some breaches of etiquette are simply considered disrespectful while others may result in the offender being removed from the arena. Here are some tips to make sure your behavior is appropriate and your visit is memorable.

Dress modestly.

It is not appropriate to wear hats, swimsuits, extremely short skirts or shorts or halter tops. Do not wear T-shirts or other items of clothing with profanity or inappropriate slogans.

If you plan to participate in dances that are open to the public, keep in mind that some tribes require women to wear a shawl or cover their shoulders.

Always listen to the master of ceremonies or announcer

“The MC will tell you when you can photograph [and] he will tell you when you can dance,” said Leonard Anthony, a Navajo gourd dancer and MC. “Usually visitors or outsiders can dance during the inter-tribal dance, but you need to listen for an announcement before you participate.”

Stand up during the grand entry

Unless you are physically unable to stand, you are expected to show respect for the dancers and rise as they enter the arena.

The seats nearest the dancing circle are reserved for singers, dancers and drummers

If you’re a spectator, do not sit here.

“A first-time visitor looks for the best seats possible,” said Dennis Zotigh, cultural specialist at the National Museum of the American Indian. “The seats closest to the arena seem to be the best seats, but that’s because the dancers stand up and immediately begin dancing.”

Pow wow grounds should be considered sacred places

A blessing is performed ahead of time and your actions should show respect for this religious and sacred ceremony.

United Tribes International Pow Wow Facebook

“It’s like going to a church,” Anthony said. “If you’re going to a pow wow, you need to honor where the dances came from, the traditions and story behind them.”

Refrain from negative thoughts or comments

The blessing that takes place beforehand sets the tone of the event and sanctifies the area, Zotigh said. Although the blessing is usually not open to the public, its spiritual nature should be taken seriously.

“Our elders have taught us not to dance or sing with negative karma,” he said. “That karma will expand and affect others.”

Do not bring alcohol, drugs or firearms to a pow wow

An exception is tobacco used for blessings or as gifts. Smoking is considered disrespectful, Zotigh said.

Follow protocol and common sense when it comes to taking photographs

Never shoot photos during prayers, gourd dances or flag songs, or when the Master of Ceremonies has prohibited it. Additional rules apply in specific circumstances, Zotigh said. For example, spectators should not take photos of dancers in regalia without first asking permission.

“This is especially true for professional photographers standing in the arena,” he said. “Often dancers are wearing something special or personally spiritual to them. A lot of

dancers don’t like their beadwork photographed because someone can see that and copy the design.”

Another rule of thumb is to never shoot photos of a dancer being initiated or receiving a plume or feather. Doing so can disrupt the spiritual process, Anthony said.

“There’s a prayer being said for that person and by taking pictures, you’re disrupting the connection,” he said.

Pow wows are colorful and high-energy events

Spectators should have fun but also keep in mind that participants are not simply entertainers. Especially during contest pow wows, dancers, singers and drummers may be performing for money.

“There are individuals who do this as a way of life,” Zotigh said. “They take it seriously because it’s their income.”

Finally, be flexible

The most important rule is to be willing to change your expectations and adapt to new situations.

(Smithsonian Flickr page)

“I think the main rule of every pow wow is that each one is different,” Zotigh said. “There is no standardization. Do as the host committee directs you to do. It may be against what you’ve been taught, but if you’re a visitor, do what they want.”

As younger participants join pow wows, some of the old rules are changing.

“The old rules are being redefined each year,” he said. “Things are changing, so be flexible with it.”

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Native History: It’s Memorial Day—In 1637, the Pequot Massacre Happened

This Date in Native History: On May 26, 1637, a Puritan force fortified by Native allies massacred a Pequot fort in Connecticut, killing as many as 500 men, women and children and burning the village to the ground.

The pre-dawn attack on Mystic Fort marked the first time the Pequot were defeated, said Kevin McBride, an anthropology professor at the University of Connecticut and director of research at the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center.

The massacre also marked a turning point in the Pequot War, a three-year war over the tribe’s traditional land—about 250 square miles in southeastern Connecticut—and the first major conflict between colonists and American Indians in New England.

“For the first eight months of the Pequot War, the Pequot never lost a battle to the English,” McBride said. “Tactically, the Pequot were superior, even without firearms. The English could not figure them out. Up until the Mystic Massacre, the Pequot had won every engagement.”

Southeastern Connecticut once was home to about 8,000 Pequot people residing in 15 to 20 villages. In response to the arrival of the Dutch in 1611, the Pequot tribe built a confederacy of dozens of tribes to control the fur trade and strengthen its political and economic power.

Until the English arrived in the 1630s, the Dutch and the Pequot controlled the region’s fur trade. With the addition of English traders and settlers, the power balance shifted. The Pequot War broke out when tribes under Pequot subjugation allied with the English.

Complicating matters were the Pequot murders of several English traders and colonists, McBride said. The English demanded that the murderers be turned over, and when the Pequot refused, the war began.

McBride called the Pequot a “complex society” and the Pequot War one of the most controversial and significant events in Colonial history. The attack at Mystic Fort, which was the first of three massacres that occurred during the war, changed the way Native forces looked at warfare.

The massacre, led by English Captain John Mason, was the first documented use of “total war” against American Indians, meaning the English force slaughtered all Pequot they came in contact with, making no distinction between armed warriors or helpless women and children.

“By any standards, it was a massacre,” McBride said. “The English did intend to kill everyone there, but they did not do it to steal land or to control trade. They did it out of fear that the Pequot and their Native allies would perpetuate a region-wide attack on the English.”

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Why Native Americans fight and die for same US army that slew their ancestors

America's Native Americans are over-represented in military and post-9/11 wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have hit the Navajo hard

'The 9/11 decade: Virginia Jim with a photograph of her son, Lyle Cambridge, who died in Iraq in 2005. Credit: Laurence Topham Link to video: 9/11 10 years on: Mourning America's war dead

The last time Virginia Jim spoke to her son Lyle Cambridge was in 2005 on 4 July, America's birthday. "I'm just calling to tell you how much I love you," he said, speaking from outside Baghdad where he was on his second tour to Iraq.

"I love you too," she said. "Just be real careful, take care of yourself."

"OK, goodbye," her son said when the time came to hang up.

"Don't say goodbye, that's a word I don't like to use."

"OK Mom, I'll talk to you later."

The next day at about 5pm, a white Jeep pulled up in front of her house amid the beige-coloured desert of New Mexico.

"The first thing that came to my mind," Jim says, "was that my son was sick. But they had come to tell me that he had been killed in action. I didn't know how to react. I started crying: 'Not my baby! That's my only baby!' "

As the 10th anniversary of 9/11 approaches, America is bowing its head in remembrance of the nearly 3,000 victims. But adjust the lens for a wider view and a vastly greater mass of sacrifice and suffering can be seen, the direct result of 9/11 and the US response to it.

The country has been at war in Afghanistan and Iraq for almost 10 years, with a concomitant toll of death and injuries.

Between them the two wars have claimed the lives of 6,026 US service members. Many of the bereaved relatives, like Jim, come from small towns across the American heartlands where the burden of war falls disproportionately.

Many, also like her, are from ethnic groups that carry a military load that exceeds their demographic weight.

She is a Native American, whose members form a portion of the US active duty forces (1.7%) that is twice as large as their proportion of the US population (0.8%).

Jim lives in Shiprock, a town in the Navajo reservation of about 8,000 people, almost exclusively Native Americans.

Three soldiers from Shiprock have died in the wars. If you add in casualties from the nearby village of Fruitland (200 residents) and the town of Farmington (45,000), the number of dead rises to seven, six of whom were Navajo.

Jim has watched the rising death toll with horror. "I don't know how to explain this," Jim says. "One after the other. You feel their pain, you know how they feel when they lose their child." At times, Jim says, she has been furious with the US military and its leaders for taking her son's life. But she quickly reminds herself of what her son always used to tell her. "They are the ones who sign my cheque Mom, they are the ones who help me support my family."

That view of the military is prevalent on the reservation, where alternative work is in short supply.

"It will help me get to college and help my future," says a 17-year-old girl after an enlistment interview in Farmington. Her 20-year-old boyfriend is also signing up

Sergeant Brandon Bowden, the recruiting officer in Farmington, has no illusions about why Native Americans are keen to join. "Many want the college benefits, others are out for some skill set they could use, as the economy is very bad in this small area. Quite a few are looking for jobs, with the unemployment rate so high."

As the wars have progressed, and more and more young people from the Shiprock area have enlisted, those left behind have had to develop coping methods.

Every week Jim attends meetings of Blue Star Mothers – women with sons or daughters in the military – in Farmington.

"We don't either support the war or want to ban the war, that's not what it's about," says Judye Sinclair-Liczel. "We're here for each other."

How would she describe the burden of the past 10 years for families like hers?

"You wake up each morning and wonder where your child is, is he OK, is he in danger or not in danger. You worry, you rip your hair out, and you cry. It doesn't get easier. Between my two boys there have been 12 deployments in 10 years, and they don't get easier. They do not."

At a meeting Melissa Sharpe, who has a son in Afghanistan, starts to talk about him. As she does so her voice cracks and tears roll down her cheeks.

"The first time he came back someone said you can breathe again, and I said that's exactly what it's like. It's just a burden, on me, and it's heavy, and I'm worried all the time. It's a pall on you constantly, and when they come back it just lifts."

Virginia Jim's son is never coming back. Now she says she lives for his two children, her grandchildren Wyatt and Nick.

"They started to come around and I started, I guess, to look at life a little differently. It kind of changed me. I thought, why am I so depressed when there are two children here who need me?"

Local victims

• Sergeant Lee Todacheene, 29, from Lukachukai Thought to be first Native American killed in Iraq. Hit by mortar fire at guard post in Balad, Iraq, on 6 April 2004.

• Corporal Lyle Cambridge, 23, from Shiprock A Navajo, Cambridge was killed by improvised explosive device near Baghdad on 5 July 2005.

• Sergeant Clifton Yazzie, 23, from Fruitland, near Shiprock Came from Native American family with a strong military tradition. Killed by a bomb on patrol in Huwija, Iraq, on 20 January 2006.

• Sergeant Marshall Westbrook, 43, from Farmington A Navajo, Westbrook was killed when his Humvee hit an IED near Baghdad on 1 October 2005. His younger brother, Kenneth, would die in Afghanistan four years later.

• Staff Sergeant Kevin Roberts, 25, from Farmington Killed by an IED while patrolling in a Humvee in Sabari, Afghanistan, on 7 May 2008.

• Sergeant Troy Tom, 21, from Shiprock Died in Arghandab, Afghanistan, after stepping on improvised bomb on 17 August 2009. His father is a member of the Navajo Nation Council.

• Sergeant Kenneth Westbrook, 41, from Shiprock Died on 7 November 2009 in hospital in Washington from injuries sustained three months earlier in an ambush in Ganjgal valley, Afghanistan. He was a month away from retirement after 22 years in the army.

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7 Native American Movies That Will Tomahawk Into Your Heart

Fighting against the powerful stupidity of racism are these stories and characters that refuse to wallow in a mire of stereotypes by displaying their humanity, be it good or evil. Let the quest for new age crystals or vegan fueled spirituality rest on other shoulders as you dive into these seven Native American movies that will tomahawk into your heart with joy, sorrow and action.

“Pathfinder”.

Hopefully a future winner in the “White man saves another differently pigmented person/group/culture” category if it ever gets created, “Pathfinder” has plenty of serious action as Viking warriors square off against Native Americans and their adopted ex-Viking. You don’t get to see many sledding races in action movies but this flick satisfies that urge with some death and mayhem during a snow sledding escape scene.

“The Burrowers”.

Horror arrives in dirt-covered glory due to the expanding migration of Americans as they overkill the buffalo population, creating a hole in the food source for the creatures in “The Burrowers”. Prejudices and brutality seem well presented along with Native Americans that are of equal mental and physical aptitude as their paler counterparts. As the group of searchers realize what the Ute tribesmen mean by using “little fish” to hunt the burrowers, the scene spins on its axis from hope to dread brilliantly.

“Reel Injun”.

The portrayal of the Native American in Hollywood through the ages gets an in-depth treatment in “Reel Injun”. With blatant and subtle racism running rampant through multiple films as well as the perpetuation of stereotypes, this film won’t tomahawk into your heart but it surely will find its way into your soul. The differing critiques of “Dances with Wolves” should have you switching between laughing and crying at the facts and falsehoods that get revealed by the critics.

“Maverick”.

Joseph’s beautiful con of a wealthy Russian hunter as well as the fake show he and his people put on will have you chuckling. Portraying a Native American that isn’t simple, stupid or overly connected to nature, Graham Greene makes one hell of a memorable character that will fit nicely into your heart. Watch him and Gibson work over a group of travelers in “Maverick” with one of the best uses of subtitles ever in a scene.

“The Last of the Mohicans”.

Mix a performance by Daniel Day Lewis with a ton of combat and non-cliched Native Americans and you get a solid film. Revenge, love, and political maneuverings fill “The Last of the Mohicans” with unleashed emotional power as motivations behind each character get slowly filled in until they are complete and whole. Uncas’ cliffside rampage againstMagua and company is a scene that screams its love of battle while embracing the possibility of death.

“Black Robe”.

“Black Robe” spends the majority of its energy in ensuring the humanity of the story, which rewards the audience and the actors equally. There are no cardboard cutouts to be passed off as nothing more than breathing scenery; rather everyone gives off their own spark of sentience. The children playing keep away as the witch doctor interrogates FatherLaForgue is a scene that brings the viewer into the film with skillful performances.

“Apocalypto”.

Jaguar Paw’s life seems to be one long dance with death as he gets captured, comes close to being sacrificed, gets made the prey in a cruelgame of escape and then gets hunted down until the very last few minutes of “Apocalypto”. So if you’re expecting a boring take on Native American life you should be continually surprised by the tragedy and action as cultures collide. As Jaguar Paw and the remaining hunters spy the ships of the conquistadors you get to participate in that feeling of a newly changed world even though you know how well it turns out for the indigenous people.

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Russell Means, Native American activist turned actor, dies at age 72 less than a month before his 73rd birthday.

Russell Means, left, tells villagers on the Pine Ridge Reservation at Wounded Knee, SD, during a 1973 rally that they must continue their fight against the government.

\SIOUX FALLS, S.D. — Russell Means never shunned attention. Whether leading Native Americans in railing against broken federal treaties, appearing in a Hollywood blockbuster or advocating a sovereign American Indian nation within U.S. borders, the activist who helped lead the 1973 uprising at Wounded Knee reveled in the spotlight.

But it was only on his terms. Openly critical of mainstream media, the onetime leader of the American Indian Movement often refused interviews and verbally blasted journalists who showed up to cover his public appearances. Instead, he chose to speak to his fan base through YouTube videos and blog posts on his personal website.

When he did speak out publicly, he remained steadfast in his defense of AIM. He found himself dogged for decades by questions about the group’s alleged involvement in the slaying of a tribe member and the several gun battles with federal officers during the 71-day occupation of Wounded Knee, but denied the group ever promoted violence.

“You people who want to continue to put AIM in this certain pocket of illegality, I can’t stand you people,” Means said, lashing out an at audience member question during an April gathering commemorating the uprising’s 40th anniversary. “I wish I was a little bit healthier and a little bit younger, because I wouldn’t just talk.”

Means, who announced in August 2011 that he had developed inoperable throat cancer but told The Associated Press he was forgoing mainstream medical treatments in favor of traditional American Indian remedies, died early Monday at his ranch in in Porcupine, S.D., Oglala Sioux Tribe spokeswoman Donna Salomon said. He was 72.

Born on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, Means grew up in the San Francisco area before becoming an early leader of AIM. He often was embroiled in controversy, partly because of AIM’s alleged involvement in the 1975 slaying of Annie Mae Aquash.

But Means also was known for his role in the movie “The Last of the Mohicans” and had run unsuccessfully for the Libertarian nomination for president in 1988.

AIM was founded in the late 1960s to protest the U.S. government’s treatment of Native Americans and demand the government honor its treaties with Indian tribes. Means told the AP in 2011 that before AIM, there had been no advocate on a national or international scale for American Indians, and that Native Americans were ashamed of their heritage.

“No one except Hollywood stars and very rich Texans wore Indian jewelry,” Means said. “And there was a plethora of dozens if not hundreds of athletic teams that in essence were insulting us, from grade schools to college. That’s all changed.”

The movement eventually faded away, the result of Native Americans becoming self-aware and self-determined, Means said.

Paul DeMain, editor of News from Indian Country, said there were plenty of Indian activists before AIM but that the group became the “radical media gorilla.”

“If someone needed help, you called on the American Indian Movement and they showed up and caused all kind of ruckus and looked beautiful on a 20-second clip on TV that night,” DeMain said.

Means and AIM co-founder Dennis Banks were charged in 1974 for their role in the Wounded Knee uprising, but after a trial that lasted several months, a judge threw the charges out on grounds of government misconduct.

Means said he felt his most important accomplishment was the founding of the Republic of Lakotah and the “re-establishment of our freedom to be responsible” as a sovereign nation inside the borders of the United States. His efforts to have his proposed country recognized by the international community continued at the United Nations, he said, even as it was ignored by tribal governments closer to home, including his own Oglala Sioux Tribe.

But others may remember him for his former organization’s connection to Aquash’s slaying. Her death remains synonymous with AIM and its often-violent clashes with federal agents in the 1970s.

Authorities believe three AIM members shot and killed Aquash on the Pine Ridge reservation on the orders of someone in AIM’s leadership because they suspected she was an FBI informant. Two activists — Arlo Looking Cloud and John Graham — were both eventually convicted of murder. The third has never been charged.

Means blamed Vernon Bellecourt, another AIM leader, for ordering Aquash’s killing. Bellecourt denied the allegations in a 2004 interview, four years before he died.

DeMain, an Indian journalist who researched the case, said AIM’s leaders know who ordered Aquash’s killing but have covered up the truth for decades.

Also in 1975, murder charges were filed against Means and Dick Marshall, an AIM member, in the shooting death of Martin Montileaux of Kyle at the Longbranch Saloon in Scenic. Marshall served 24 years in prison. Means was acquitted.

In addition to his presidential bid, Means also briefly served as a vice presidential candidate in 1984, joining the Larry Flynt ticket during the Hustler magazine publisher’s unsuccessful bid for the Republican nomination. Flynt was typically a Democrat.

But Means always considered himself a Libertarian and couldn’t believe that anyone would want to call themselves either a Republican or a Democrat.

“It’s just unconscionable that America has become so stupid,” he said.

His acting career began in 1992 when he portrayed Chingachgook alongside Daniel Day-Lewis’ Hawkeye in “The Last of the Mohicans.” He also appeared in the 1994 film “Natural Born Killers,” voiced Chief Powhatan in the 1995 animated film “Pocahontas” and guest starred in 2004 on the HBO series “Curb Your Enthusiasm.”

Means recounted his life in the book “Where White Men Fear to Tread.” He said he pulled no punches in his autobiography, admitting to his frailties and evils but also acknowledging his successes.

“I tell the truth, and I expose myself as a weak, misguided, misdirected, dysfunctional human being I used to be,” he said.

Salomon, the tribal spokeswoman, called Means’ death a “great loss” for the Oglala Sioux Tribe.

Means’ death came a day after former U.S. Sen. George McGovern died in Sioux Falls at the age of 90. McGovern had traveled to Wounded Knee with U.S. Sen. James Abourezk during the 71-day takeover to try to negotiate an end.

“I’ve lost two good friends in a matter of two to three days,” Abourezk said Monday morning. “I don’t pretend to understand it.”

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