American Indian Warrior Tradition

Buffalo hide painted about 1880 by Oglala Lakota (Sioux) named Young Man Afraid of His Horse. Depicts the actions of traditional warriors in battle. 2

For thousands of years, American Indian men have protected their communities and lands. “Warrior” is an English word that has come to describe them. However, their traditional roles involved more than fighting enemies. They cared for people and helped in many ways, in any time of difficulty. They would do anything to help their people survive, including laying down their own lives.
Warriors were regarded with the utmost respect in their communities. Boys trained from an early age to develop the spiritual, mental, emotional, and physical strength they would need to become warriors. Many tribes had special warrior societies, which had their own ceremonies, songs, dances, and regalia that they wore. Usually, a warrior had to prove himself before being asked to join a warrior society. It was a great honor to be chosen in this way.
Despite everything that American Indians had endured in the past, the warrior tradition—the tradition of protecting their people—called many of them to serve in the United States military. They cared about their communities and the lands on which their people had lived for thousands of years. Many of them also served out of a sense of patriotism, wanting to defend the United States. For some American Indians, the military offered economic security and an opportunity for education, training, and world travel.
More than 12,000 American Indians served in World War I—about 25 percent of the male American Indian population at that time. During World War II, when the total American Indian population was less than 350,000, an estimated 44,000 Indian men and women served.

In World War I, Choctaw and other American Indians transmitted battle messages in their tribal languages by telephone. Although not used extensively, the World War I telephone squads played a key role in helping the United States Army win several battles in France that brought about the end of the war.
Beginning in 1940, the army recruited Comanches, Choctaws, Hopis, Cherokees, and others to transmit messages. The army had special American Indian recruiters working to find Comanches in Oklahoma who would enlist.

Comanche Code Talkers of the 4th Infantry Division, 1941. 3

The Marine Corps recruited Navajo Code Talkers in 1941 and 1942. Philip Johnston was a World War I veteran who had heard about the successes of the Choctaw telephone squad. Johnston, although not Indian, had grown up on the Navajo reservation. In 1942, he suggested to the Marine Corps that Navajos and other tribes could be very helpful in maintaining communications secrecy. After viewing a demonstration of messages sent in the Navajo language, the Marine Corps was so impressed that they recruited 29 Navajos in two weeks to develop a code within their language.

United States Marine Corps Platoon 382, made up of the first 29 Navajo Code Talkers, 1942. 4

After the Navajo code was developed, the Marine Corps established a Code Talking school. As the war progressed, more than 400 Navajos were eventually recruited as Code Talkers. The training was intense. Following their basic training, the Code Talkers completed extensive training in communications and memorizing the code.
Some Code Talkers enlisted, others were drafted. Many of the Code Talkers who served were under age and had to lie about their age to join. Some were just 15 years old. Ultimately, there were Code Talkers from at least 16 tribes who served in the army, the marines, and the navy.

All I thought when I went in the Marine Corps was going to give me a belt of ammunition, and a rifle, a steel helmet, and a uniform. Go and shoot some of those Japanese. That’s what I thought; but later on they told us differently, you know different style, purpose of why they got us in.—Chester Nez, Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

That was about 1940, and when I got home I said, I found out they was recruiting 20 Comanches who could talk their tribe fluently for a special unit, and I told dad, “I’d like to go.”—Charles Chibitty, Comanche Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

We were drafted. They made us go. I didn’t volunteer. —Franklin Shupla, Hopi Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

Many American Indian Code Talkers in World War II used their everyday tribal languages to convey messages. A message such as, “Send more ammunition to the front,” would just be translated into the Native language and sent over the radio. These became known as Type Two Codes.
However, the Navajos, Comanches, Hopis, and Meskwakis developed and used special codes based on their languages. These became known as Type One Codes.
To develop their Type One Code, the original 29 Navajo Code Talkers first came up with a Navajo word for each letter of the English alphabet. Since they had to memorize all the words, they used things that were familiar to them, such as kinds of animals.

So we start talking about different things, animals, sea creatures, birds, eagles, hawks, and all those domestic animals. Why don’t we use those names of different animals—from A to Z. So A, we took a red ant that we live with all the time. B we took a bear, Yogi the Bear, C a Cat, D a Dog, E an Elk, F, Fox, G, a goat and so on down the line.—Chester Nez, Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

Here are some of the words they used:

Letter	Navajo word	English word
C	MOASI	Cat
D	LHA-CHA-EH	DOG
E	DZEH	Elk
I	TKIN	Ice
O	NE-AHS-JAH	Owl
R	GAH	Rabbit
V	A-KEH-DI-GLINI	Victor

See if you can translate the following coded message:

MOASI   NE-AHS-JAH   LHA-CHA-EH   DZEH   GAH   DZEH   MOASI   DZEH   TKIN   A-KEH-DI-GLINI   DZEH   LHA-CHA-EH
This is the English translation:
C-O-D-E   R-E-C-E-I-V-E-D
Here’s how the message is decoded:
MOASI (C-Cat), NE-AHS-JAH (O-Owl), LHA-CHA-EH (D-Dog), DZEH (E-Elk), GAH (R-Rabbit), DZEH (E-Elk), MOASI (C-Cat), DZEH (E-Elk), TKIN (I-Ice), A-KEH-DI-GLINI (V-Victor), DZEH (E Elk), LHA-CHA-EH (D-Dog)

The Navajos, Comanches, Hopis, and others also had to develop special words for World War II military terms, such as types of planes, ships, or weapons. They were given picture charts that showed them the items. After looking at the pictures, they came up with words that seemed to fit the pictures.

Native word	Literal meaning	Code Meaning
tushka chipota (Choctaw)	warrior soldier	soldier
atsá (Navajo)	eagle	transport plane
paaki (Hopi)	houses on water	ships
wakaree´e (Comanche)	turtle	tank

Well, when they first got us in there for Code Talkers, we had to work that out among our own selves so, we didn’t have a word for tank. And the one said it’s like a [Comanche words] he said, it’s just like a turtle, you know. It has a hard shell and it moves and so we called it a wakaree´e, a turtle. —Charles Chibitty, Comanche Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

Unidentified American Indian Marine uses a “Walky-Talky” to send communications in the South Pacific, November 1943. 5

On the battlefield, the work of sending coded messages was extremely serious. Being able to keep messages secret could make the difference between winning and losing a battle—or affect how many lives were saved or lost.
Code Talkers did more than speak into a hand-held radio or phone. They had to know how to operate both wire and radio equipment, and often had to carry it on their backs. They had to know how to set up and maintain the electronic communication wires, or lines. Sometimes their messages were broadcast over a wide area, helping to direct bigger operations. At other times, messages related to a smaller group, such as a platoon.
Code Talkers were given the messages in English. Without writing them down, they translated and sent them to another Code Talker. After the message was transmitted and received, it was written down in English and entered into a message logbook. The Code Talkers also sent messages in English. Messages were only coded when absolute security was needed.

The commanding officer, they give you a message that’s written. It’s just short talking about how much ammunition and certain map area that Marines are getting killed. They need more machine gun ammunition. You translate that as small as you can. —John Brown, Jr., Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

The Navajo and Hopi were assigned to service in the Pacific in the war against Japan. The Comanches fought the Germans in Europe, and the Meskwakis fought them in North Africa. Code Talkers from other tribes fought at various locations in Europe, the Pacific, North Africa, and elsewhere.

These maps of Europe, the Pacific Islands, and Africa during World War II show the territory occupied by the enemies of the United States and where some of the important battles occurred. 6

Sixth Fleet during the invasion of Iwo Jima, with Mt. Suribachi in the background, 1945. 7

Like all soldiers, Code Talkers carry many memories of their war experiences. Some memories are easy to revisit. Others are very difficult. Some veterans do not really like to discuss these memories, while others can more comfortably recall them. They remember how fierce and dangerous some of the fighting was. Some remember when their fellow soldiers were wounded or killed. They remember the noise and the violence of war. Others recall being prisoners of war. Sometimes they have more pleasant memories of different cultures and places that they had never seen before and probably would never see again. They also remember how their American Indian spirituality was important to them during the war.

The, uh Mount Suribachi was on our left side just looming up. Here we started going over aboard the ship going down the net into a landing craft ship, a smaller ship. We took all our gear then we went down there. And we circulate round and round for awhile until they say go. When they say go, all those little bitty landing ships they go together right down to the beach. Before we hit the beach, the uh, officer on that ship he tell us to pray in your own belief. Me I just took out my corn powder as I was told by our medicine man and then pray. So, I think some of the kids join me to pray. —Sam Tso, Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

Utah Beach in Normandy was something else. Everybody asked me if I would go through it again, and I said, no, but I could train the younger ones how we used our language and let them go ahead and do it because it was hell.—Charles Chibitty, Comanche Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

A cup of hot water in the morning for coffee. A little bowl of soup at noon, then two potatoes at night. That’s what you live on. That’s what I lived on for three years.—Frank Sanache, Meskwaki Code Talker (discussing the meals provided for him as a prisoner of war), National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

We prayed to the sun, stars, whatever. It’s our way of keeping in contact with somebody. Our superior or whatever you might call him. That’s how we do it.—Franklin Shupla, Hopi, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

Private First Class Carl Gorman of Chinle, Arizona, at an observation post on the island of Saipan. 8

Carl Gorman joined the United States Marine Corps in 1942 when he learned they were recruiting Navajos. He went through all of the difficult training and was one of the original 29 Navajos who were given the secret mission of developing the Navajo code. Carl answered one of his officers who had asked why Navajos were able to memorize the complex code so quickly: “For us, everything is memory, it’s part of our heritage. We have no written language. Our songs, our prayers, our stories, they’re all handed down from grandfather to father to children—and we listen, we hear, we learn to remember everything. It’s part of our training.” (Power of a Navajo: Carl Gorman, the Man and His Life, by Henry and Georgia Greenberg,1996)
Carl served in four important Pacific battles: Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Tinian, and Saipan. In 1942, Carl was stricken by Malaria, a severe tropical disease, yet he continued to fight. In 1944, Carl was evacuated from Saipan suffering both from the effects of Malaria and shell shock. Shell shock is the psychological effects of being in extremely stressful and dangerous situations, such as combat. Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite spread through the bite of a mosquito. Malaria was a common disease in the Pacific islands where much of the war against Japan was fought. He had to be hospitalized and took many months to recover.

"Indian Code Talkers," painting by Wayne Cooper depicting Charles Chibitty during the D-Day landings at Utah Beach. 9

Charles Chibitty was one of 17 Comanche men who served as Code Talkers in World War II. In 1941, when he learned that Comanches were being recruited to speak their language, he volunteered for the United States Army. Mr. Chibitty helped develop the code that the Comanches used and participated in some of the fiercest fighting of the war, including the D-Day landing in Normandy. He attained the rank of Corporal.

Well, I was afraid and if I didn’t talk to the Creator, something was wrong. Because when you’re going to go in battle, that’s the first thing you’re going to do, you’re going to talk to the Creator.—Charles Chibitty, Comanche Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

• What are the similarities between the older American Indian warrior traditions and the Code Talkers of World War II?
• What were some of the most difficult challenges the Code Talkers faced in war?

Can you YIL-TAS, TSAH-AS-ZIH, A-KHA, NO-DA-IH, GAH, A-KHA, GLOE-IH, TSAH, HANE-AL-NEH?
That’s Navajo code for “code your own message?”
Navajo Code Talkers memorized 17 pages of code as part of their training. Imagine the pressure that was on the Code Talkers. First, they had to develop a code that the enemies would not be able to translate. Then they had to memorize it. In battle, they had to transmit their messages with the utmost care and accuracy under difficult circumstances. Their work saved lives and helped the United States achieve victories.
The Navajo Code Talkers developed their own code dictionary. This dictionary was kept secret for many years and was only made public in 1968. To find a copy of the Navajo Code Dictionary, go to the following website:  http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq61-4.htm

Coding messages
Use the Navajo Code Dictionary to code this realistic message. Copy the message in English to your workbook. Then, write the Navajo code version:
“Fierce action at forward position. Intense mortar attack. Request reinforcements immediately!”
Then, in your workbook, make up and write your own coded message to a friend

"First Furlough," painting by Quincy Tahoma, a Navajo artist, 1943. 2

According to American Indian traditional beliefs, war affects a soldier’s well being, and makes it difficult for him to live in the everyday world. For American Indians, returning home means returning to a place—a land, a community, a family, and a culture—that you are part of, a place that you have a special relationship with. Participating in war interferes with your ability to be part of this place. It upsets the balance of life. This is why American Indian cultures have special ceremonies to help bring the soldier’s life back into balance—to make it possible for the soldier to once again live in peace and to be physically, spiritually, emotionally, and mentally healthy.
These ceremonies are part of the traditional religions of American Indians and are still part of life today for many American Indians. The ceremonies are powerful and have helped many Code Talkers and other returning soldiers. Many American Indians are also Christian, and the prayers and services of the Christian church were also an important part of the healing after war for many Code Talkers and other American Indian veterans.

The Navajo people have different kinds of ceremonies for returning soldiers. When a soldier returns from war, his family can decide to sponsor a ceremony for him. They contact a spiritual leader, sometimes called a medicine man, who talks to the soldier about what he has experienced and decides which ceremony will be best for him. The Enemy Way ceremony, sometimes called the Squaw Dance, is one Navajo ceremony used for soldiers who were in combat, captured, or wounded.

“The Black Pot Drum of the Enemy Way,” a painting by Carl Gorman, depicts a scene in the Navajo Enemy Way Ceremony. 3

Intense preparations are made and, at the appropriate time, the ceremony is conducted. Often it includes family members and others who participate in the prayers, songs, and other parts of the ceremony. These ceremonies help the Navajo war veterans return to a state of balance, or beauty, within the universe. This state of balance is called “Hozho” in the Navajo language.

Happily may their roads back home be on the trail of pollen.
Happily may they all get back.
In beauty I walk.
With beauty before me, I walk.
With beauty behind me, I walk.
With beauty below me, I walk.
With beauty above me, I walk.
With beauty all around me, I walk.
It is finished in beauty,
It is finished in beauty,
It is finished in beauty,
It is finished in beauty.
'Sa'ah naaghéi, Bik'eh hózhó
—from a Navajo Ceremony (Four Masterworks of American Indian Literature, ed. by John Bierhorst, 1974)

I had nightmares thinking about the blood. The Japanese and the smell of the dead. Rotting Japanese and they probably got into my mind. And they had a Squaw Dance for me in Crystal. And I imagine they killed that evil spirit that was in my mind. That’s what it’s about. There’s a lot of stories there. It takes a long time to talk about it. It usually takes a medicine man to explain everything properly. But it works.—John Brown, Jr., Navajo Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

The Christian Church was also important to some Navajo veterans. The songs and prayers of these church ceremonies helped Navajo veterans who returned from war.

Comanche tipi used for a ceremony of the Native American Church, near Lawton, Oklahoma in 1908. 4

Code Talkers and other soldiers participated in spiritual ceremonies before the war to protect them and after the war to help them recover from the effects. The Native American Church was an important form of spirituality for many Comanches and other veterans. The church combines traditional Indian ceremonies and Christianity. The ceremonies include the ingestion of peyote, a spiritual plant that is sacred to members of the Church. They last all night and are held in a tipi, where participants sing important songs and offer their prayers.

There was a peyote meeting for me at the church. I was given a piece of peyote that had been blessed to keep me from harm. I think all the others were given one too. It must have worked, for all of us came back home. Yes, I still have it.— Haddon Codynah, Comanche Code Talker (Comanche Code Talkers by William C. Meadows, 2002)

Christian services were also an important way for some Comanche Code Talkers and other veterans to offer their thanks for a safe return.

Navajo Code Talkers marching proudly in a parade in Washington, D.C., July 1983. 5

American Indian communities remember their veterans’ sacrifices forever. Veterans are always respected and honored. Sometimes they are remembered in special songs that are sung in their honor. Native people often go to veterans for advice because they have strong mental abilities as a result of their many experiences. Depending on the community, veterans are given special prominence at different kinds of tribal events. For example, at powwows veterans always lead the grand entry of dancers. They carry the American Indian Eagle Staff, the flag of the United States, their tribal flag, and other important banners. Veterans are recognized and honored on special occasions with ceremonies and dances that relate their sacrifices to the community. For example, the Comanche Gourd Dance honors veterans. Sometimes a family member or a friend might hold a special dance or ceremony to honor a veteran. These are the lasting traditions that show respect to veterans for what they have done for the people.

After the war, Carl Gorman returned home to Arizona for a short time. Even though he had been raised as a Christian, he talked about how the traditional Navajo ceremonies for warriors became important to him: "I didn't have a ceremony when I came home," he said. "I didn't quite believe in it anymore. A medicine man that was an old friend suggested that I have one, but I didn't have the money to pay him to perform it. He agreed to do a one-night sing over me for free. I participated in the sing and felt a great weight leave my mind and body. I felt very rested afterwards. I realized then that I needed to make peace with what I had experienced during the war." (Navajo Weapon by Sally McClain, 2001)

After leaving the Army, Charles Chibitty returned to Lawton, Oklahoma. He participated in both a Christian prayer meeting and a Native American Church ceremony to help himself recover from the effects of war and to give thanks for his safe return.

My full brother, we met in Germany and we had a couple of days together there. And when he come home then, they honored us in a big prayer meeting up there at Comanche Methodist Church.

They had a big peyote church for us (Native American Church), you know, up in the tipi... And it seemed like I got more benefit out of that than I did out of the church deal because everything was traditional, you know. And I understand them old people when they pray. Beautiful prayers that morning. It was a religion that was here before white men ever got here. —Charles Chibitty, Comanche Code Talker, National Museum of the American Indian interview, 2004

• Why are cultural traditions important to the well-being of soldiers who have been at war?
• What non-Native cultural traditions are practiced in the United States to honor and help returning veterans?

What are your feelings about war and what it does to soldiers?
War has different effects on all soldiers. Some effects are bad and harmful, others are more positive. For a week, read newspaper articles about current wars or conflicts that involve military personnel. Look for quotations from soldiers, their families, or their leaders about war’s effects. Look for both negative and positive comments. Look for examples of how the country or individual communities are caring for these soldiers.

Expressing your feelings about war

Wounded United States soldiers of the 16th Infantry Regiment at Omaha Beach in Normandy, France. 6

Navajo Code Talkers at a 1979 parade in Window Rock, Arizona, the capitol of the Navajo Nation 7

A rifle placed upside down in the ground with a helmet on top serving as a memorial of a soldier who has died 8

Think about the articles you read and how you feel about what you learned in them. For your workbook, choose a photo from above (or from another source) that reflects what you feel. In your workbook, write a poem or paragraph describing your feelings about war and its effects on soldiers.



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